Notes Oct. 25-29

Drama
Chapter 1: The Nature of Drama
Drama is a lot like Prose fiction or poetry. BUT what is unique about it is that it was written to be performed, not read. 

• Present action...
• through actors
• impact is direct and based on the actors' skills
• audience receives all info at once instead of multiple paragraphs- how character looks and moves and speaks
• on stage 
• and before an audience
• spectators' response is affected by other spectators- impact intensified
• Playwrights have tremendous amount of power but are also limited
• practically limited to 1 point of view: the objective, or dramatic
• Soliloquy- characters are presented as speaking to themselves (think out loud)
• Aside- characters turn from people on stage they are conversing with to speak directly to audience- allows audience know what they are really thinking/feeling
• Playwright can command undivided attention since audience only has the play to look at, but since it's confined to a stage that also limits the audience's imagination.
• use mostly humans
• can't quickly change settings constantly 

Drama Terms

• Realistic- drama that attempts in content and in presentation to preserve the illusion of actual everyday life. 
• Non Realistic- drama that departs markedly from fidelity to outward appearances of life. 
• Tragedy- type of drama with events that lead to downfall and suffering of protagonist a person of unusual moral or intellectual stature or outstanding abilities.
• Comedy- type of drama with a usually happy ending, emphasizing human limitation rather than human greatness
• Romantic Comedy- likable and sensible main characters placed in difficulties from which they are rescued at end of play, either attaining their ends or having good fortunes restored. 
• Scornful Comedy- main purpose to expose and ridicule human folly, vanity, or hypocrisy.
• Melodrama- type of drama related to tragedy but featuring sensational incidents, emphasizing plot, relying on cruder conflicts and having happy ending when good triumphs evil.
• Farce- type of drama related to a comedy, but emphasizing improbable situations, violent conflicts, physical action, and coarse wit over characterization and plot.
• Protagonist- main character in story/ play
• Antagonist- any force in story in conflict with protagonist. May be person, aspect of physical or social environment or destructive element in protagonist's own nature.
• Foil characters- a character whose distinguishing moral qualities or personal traits are summed up in one or two traits
• Plot- The sequence of incidents or events of which a story of play is composed
• Suspense- That quality in a story or play that makes the reader eager to discover what happens next and how it will end.
• Themes- The central idea or unifying generalization implied or stated by a literary work.
• Didactic- poetry, fiction, or drama having as a primary purpose to teach or preach.
• Dramatic Exposition- the presentation through dialogue of information about events that occurred before the action of a play, or that occurs offstage or between the staged actions; this may also refer to the presentation of information about individual characters' backgrounds or the general situation in which the action takes place. 

Chapter 2- Realistic and Non-Realistic Drama

• Drama adds another dimension of possible unreality since written to be performed
• involves certain necessary artificiality 
• audience must imagine there are four walls and actors must adapt to different stages to accommodate members from all sides of the audience.
• dramatic conventions- we have to accept certain departures from reality (room with less than four walls still represents one with four and actors speak language of audience disregarding nationality of their characters)
• other conventions (avoided in working in strictly realistic mode): example: characters reveal inner thoughts
• make possible the revelation of dimensions of reality
• chorus- group of actors speaking in unison (another nonrealistic devise)
• useful for conveying communal or group emotion
• narrator- vehicle for dramatic truth

Plagiarism

• Still plagiarism even if it is an accident.
• plagiarism results in a full or partial loss of credit
• Good paraphrasing:
• condenses
• restructures syntax
• replaces words

Outside Reading: Book Review #1

Book Review: "Sibling Rivalry"

by Jenaette Winterson

published October 1, 2010

          Jeanette Winterson’s book review, “Sibling Rivalry,” discusses Cunningham’s novel, “By Nightfall,” with a formalistic approach, arguing that he has an extremely effective writing style.  The writer easily accomplishes her goal of convincing the reader this by noticing a multitude of elements in the piece and how they enhance the writing. When she analyzes the use of syntax, she explains how the sentence structure creates a perfect pace of reading and keeps the novel alive. In another paragraph Winterson notices the way the author “externalizes [the novel’s] agonies” which puts us in the character’s head so that we can “look out at his life” (2). This review hardly gives away any of the book, while still persuading a reader of its interesting plot and style. 

         The most prominent critical approach used in this review is Formalism. Winterson picks apart this novel based on literary elements in it, including symbols, plot, dialogue, and many others. She begins to support her argument by describing the opening of the book with an animal sacrifice, symbolizing the losses and mistakes of the main character’s life, to introduce the reader to the main idea of the story. Then she talks about the “simple, potent plot” the author uses, allowing him to focus on “the hearts and minds, the groins and guts, of his characters,” while not boring the readers and keeping them anxious for more (2). Dialogue and sentence length, according to Winterson, are also skillfully mastered, with sentences “stretched or contracted at just the right time” (2). Towards the end of the review, the writer analyzes the way Cunningham concludes the novel, by using a second sacrifice like the one from the beginning. Although this time it’s a human sacrificed instead an animal, to completely wrap up a theme of the novel about letting things go about ourselves in order to grow up. 

           There also seems to be an emphasis in this book review about the allusions to Shakespeare, which Foster explained in “How to Read Literature Like a Professor” that almost everything is based off of Shakespeare’s work. The first allusion noticed by Winterson is the plot about the surprise arrival of a person bringing “chaos, self-knowledge, tragedy, [and] the ruin of one kind of life” not necessarily leading to a better one (2). She notices that the same plot is used in Shakespeare’s “Twelfth Night.”  There is also a “gender swap confusion” when the main character mistakes the male guest in the shower for a young beautiful version of his wife (3). This common Shakespearean plot spin occurs in “Twelfth Night” with Viola and Sebastian, and in “As You Like It” with Rosalind. 

          By examining many literary elements and Shakespeare allusions, Jeanette Winterson effectively convinces the reader of this novel’s excellence. 

Outside Reading: Reflective Essay #1

Reflective Essay: "Mine is Longer Than Yours"

by Michael Kinsley

published April 7, 2008

           This essay is about living with Parkinson's disease and the competition of the length one's life. The writer begins the story with a couple personal experiences he had that dealt with age. He meets two men who seem to brag about how old they have been able to live. This brings him to the idea of the competitiveness about age, like it's something people have a large amount of control over when really most of it is determined by genetics, culture, and finances. Throughout the essay he displays a tone of slight criticism and jealousy but also contentment.

        Kinsley begins with a small amount of criticism towards those competitors, saying that “extending your own life expectancy is the most selfish motive imaginable for doing anything,” when one could focus on sacrificing his or her life for others (2). He goes on to debate the glamour of death at different ages. While dying very early can be noble or glamorous along with dying at such an old age that it’s shocking, dying in your fifties and sixties is not in any way interesting. It is not until he begins to talk about the three highest causes of death that we learn the writer actually has Parkinson’s disease. Now the reader can begin to realize and understand the tone of jealousy hinted in the first few pages. The envy is minimal though as the tone of the piece converts to acceptance and contentment. Kinsley talks about the limitations one feels when hit with the news about having a chronic disease. Most people take the viewpoint that you are automatically excluded “from the club of living” and left with a finite future, but the writer takes a different outlook (5). Each choice you make isn’t necessarily the last. He describes the unfair feeling that the arc of one’s career or life is not only unachieved but “unexpectedly chopped off” (7). Rather than being disappointed about a younger person beating you for a position, people with a chronic disease, feel disappointment about losing a job to someone older because while that person is still going strong, they realize that their time is running out. 

        For an AP essay the tone used is fantastic because it is appropriate and understandable. The writer is never angrily ranting, or making jokes, but rather calmly discusses his perspectives about different aspects. The tone is also always supported by reasons for the way he feels. He doesn’t just criticize a person’s actions without eventually giving his rationale. This essay is full of emotions from acceptance to disappointment and jealousy, which is completely understandable when one is forced confront life’s length and meaning, but Kinsley pulls through and has an overall positive tone. 

Outside Reading: Editorial #1

Editorial: “To our Readers: An Editorial: The President Should Resign”

Author unknown

Published November 12, 1973

         This editorial strongly states that President Richard Nixon should resign from office. The writer creates an assertive and confident voice concerning his or her decision about Nixon’s current position. They add a great amount of support to their argument by adding details of past political corruption and the possibility of a devastated future. 

          The editorial begins with the consequences and further damage Nixon would cause if he did not resign. The first supporting detail of this is that if Nixon sticks with the presidency, he will most likely be impeached and just the process alone “would leave him and the country devastated” (1). The trial for this would also take a significant amount of time, meanwhile leaving the country leaderless. The next paragraph explains why Gerald Ford, who would replace Nixon, would be “an unmistakable improvement” because he is free of corruption, “liked and respected on capitol hill,” and most importantly, he will be good with foreign affairs when there is no question of whether he will be in office for his full term (2). The writer uses a confident voice, which causes the reader to not question Ford’s ability. One small problematic aspect of Ford is also included, then quickly countered by an assurance that it is not a big deal. This way the reader would not wonder if something is being covered up to make Ford seem perfect. 

         Then, the writer admits that not too long ago even they believed, along with most of the country, that Nixon would be a fantastic president, but have reluctantly decided that he must go. By admitting this it makes the reader feel more connected with the writer and therefore more likely to sway over to his side of the argument. It also causes the writer to seem less like he is accusing people of choosing a bad president since he mad the same mistake. Soon after this the author reminds the reader of the long list of corrupt activities Nixon and his administration has done. Towards the end of the article he recognizes the fact that there is usually corruption in politics, but that the good leaders are separated from the bad by the way they handle it and whether that behavior is condoned. To conclude the essay the reader confronts people’s fear of America looking weak from the President resigning by instead saying that it would show the country’s strength to have the ability to “cleanse itself” “of a badly infected political system” (7).

           With a strong and assertive voice, the speaker of this essay would definitely be appropriate for an AP piece. There are multiple arguments the author uses to support their opinion and a great amount of evidence attached to them. By the end, the reader is mostly likely leaning towards what the writer is persuading if not completely convinced.  Along with the fantastic structure and support of this essay, the writers tone leads to an entirely convincing argument.

Notes Oct 11-22

More Poetry
In-Class Group Poetry Analysis

• A Light Exists in Spring p1036
• growing feeling, spring, 
• human activity not good enough- spiritual
• feeling goes away unnoticed
• If thou must love me p1032
• love her for love not characteristics- people change over time
• uses rhetoric well
• "let it be," commands- uses a lot of imperatives
• Sirens from Odyssey p1027
• don't enjoy their life, cry for help
• archetypal character- seductress
• allusion of sirens- women who are seductresses are trapped in this role
• On Reading Poems to a Senior Class at South High p1028
• speaker thought he was disconnected with students- frozen fish students
• pun- "swimming with school of fish"
• surreal experience- him and students "swim" together as they delve deep into text.
• water leaks out door, everything is back to normal.

Chapter 8- Allusion

• a reference to something in history or previous literature 
• richly connotative word or symbol suggesting far more than it says.
• reinforce emotion or idea of one's own work with emotion or ideas or another work or occasion
• vary in the number of readers that will be familiar with it- danger of being misunderstood.

Chapter 9- Meaning and Idea

• meaning of poem- experience it expresses
• total meaning of a poem- the only way an experience is communicated
• prose meaning can be separated out in form of prose paraphrase 
• story, description, statement of emotion, presentation of human nature.

Chapter 10- Tone

• speaker's attitude toward the subject, reader, or himself
• emotional meaning 
• affects interpretation
• tone can vary or shift throughout poem- achieve poet's purpose to create dramatic structure
• to recognize tone must have...
• increasing familiarity with meaning and connotations of words
• alertness to irony and other figures
• careful reading

Chapter 11- Musical Devices

• Poetry uses "music" of language
• chooses words for sound as well as meaning 
• poet achieves musical quality by...
• choice and arrangement of sounds
• arrangement of accents
• repetition and variation are essential elements

Chapter 12- Rhythm and Meter

• Rhythm-wavelike recurrence of motion or sound
• natural rise and fall of language in speech
• alternating between accented and unaccented words
• some syllables accented or stressed- more prominence in pronunciation
• toDAY, toMORROW, YESterday
• certain words in a sentence are also given more prominence
• rhetorical stresses- the words that are stressed can completely change the meaning of the sentence
• poetry has lines that create pauses in flow of speech
• end-stopped line- end of line corresponds with a natural speech pause
• run-on line- sense of the line moves without pause into next line
• no punctuation at end is usually run on
• caesuras-pauses within lines, either grammatical or rhetoric
• Free Verse- poetic line is basic rhythmic unit
• line arrangement is only difference between rhythms of free verse and rhythms of prose
• Prose Poem- depends entirely on ordinary prose rhythms
• attention to many poetic elements
• Meter- identify characteristics of rhythm we can tap our feet to.
• Rhythm v. Meter- mean different things
• rhythm designates flow of actual pronounced sound while meter refers to patterns that sounds follow when arranged into metrical verse
• Units of Meter:
• foot- one accented syllable plus one or two unaccented syllables
• basic kinds of feet
• Duple meter
• Iambic
• Trochaic
• Triple meter
• Anapestic
• Sactylic
• Spondaic
• line- same as in free verse
• names of lines:
• monometer- one foot 
• dimeter- two feet
• trimeter- three feet
• tetrameter- four feet
• pentameter- five feet
• hexameter- six feet
• stanza- group of lines whose metrical pattern is repeated throughout the poem.
• Metrical Variations- calls attention to some of the sounds because they are different from what is regular in the poem
• substitution- replace regular foot with another one
• extra-metrical syllables- added at the beginnings or endings of lines
• truncation- omission of an unaccented syllable at either end of line.
• Scansion- process of defining the metrical form of a poem
1. identify prevailing foot
2. name number of feet in line (if it follows a pattern)
3. describe stanzaic pattern (if there is one)

Chapter 13- Sound and Meaning

• music has 2 general functions
• enjoyable
• reinforce meaning and intensity communication
• Poet reinforces meaning through sound
• onomatopoeia- words that sound like what they mean.
• phonetic intensives- sound connect with its meaning
• ex: fl- sound associated with moving light- flames, flare, flash, flicker
• group sounds so effect is smooth and pleasant sounding or rough and harsh sounding.
• consonants- noises, vowels more pleasing- musical tones
• euphony- lightness and speed expressed
• and cacophony- heavy labor expressed
• controlling speed and movement of lines by meter and grammatical and rhetorical pauses
• control sound and meter to emphasize important words
• highlight words through alliteration, assonance, consonance, or rhyme
• synesthesia- stimulation of 2 or more senses simultaneously

Chapter 14- Pattern 

• Structure- arrangement of ideas, thoughts, sentences
• external pattern
• Form- external shape
• 3 kinds of form:
• continuous form- element of design is slight 
• lines follow each other without formal grouping
• stanzaic form- poet writes in a series of stanzas- repeated units having the same number of lines, same metrical pattern and identical rhyme scheme
• shows degrees of formal pattern 
• designating 4 things:
• rhyme scheme
• position of refrain
• prevailing of metrical foot
• number of feet in a line
• fixed form- traditional pattern that applies to a whole poem
• more forms used in french poetry that English- only 3 used in english (limerick, sonnet, and villanelle)
• limerick- 
• anapestic pattern aa3bb2a3
• allows use of a substitute foot in first foot of any line strictly adhere to form after that
• for humorous and nonsense verse
• sonnet-
• less rigidly prescribed 
• 14 lines in length
• almost always iambic pentameter
• italian sonnet- divided between 8 lines (octave), 2 rhymes arranged abbaabba
• 6 lines (sestet), using 2 or 3 rhymes cdcdcd and cdecde
• octave=situation, sestet=comment  OR octave=idea, sestet=example
• English sonnet- 
• 3 quatrains and concluding couplet, rhyming abab cdcd efef gg
• 3 quatrains=3 examples, couplet= conclusion
• most effective for serious treatment of love
• villanelle
• complex pattern of repetition and rhyme
• requires only 2 rhyme sounds
• 19 lines divided into 5 3-line stanzas (tercets) and 4 line concluding quatrain
• difficult to compose effectively 
• haunting unforgettable effects

Chapter 15- Evalutating Poetry: Sentimental, Rhetorical, Didactic Verse

• understand poem before evaluation
• ask 3 questions
1. what is central purpose? - to understand poem
• make a few generalizations
• no excess words
• each word expresses total meaning
• word order
• diction, images, figures of speech are fresh
• good organization
2. How fully has this purpose been accomplished?- evaluate it, judges by scale of perfection.
3. How important is purpose? -judges on scale of significance
• sentimentality- indulgence in emotion, expression of more emotion than an occasion warrants
• "tear-jerking" literature: sentimental literature
• stimulates emotions directly rather than communicating experience
• Rhetoric Poetry- uses more glittering and high- flown language than necessary 
• has language without corresponding reality of emotion or thought underneath
• Didactic Poetry- teaches or preaches
• ranks high in excellence

Chapter 16- Evaluating Poetry: Poetic Excellence

• final standing of rating of poem depends on significance of purpose
• Great Poetry=
• engages whole person (senses, imagination, emotion, and intellect)
• brings us fresh insights into nature of human experience
• broader and deeper understanding of life
• it is knowledge

Notes Oct 4-7

The AP Exam

• not penalized for wrong guesses- so always make a guess!
• 55 mulitiple choice questions: you should get all 1&2 questions correct, most of the 3&4 questions correct, and some of the 5 level questions correct (more opinionated kind of questions)
• flash cards of some literary terms to know for exam: http://quizlet.com/731802/ap-english-exam-glossary-flash-cards/
• essay section 120 min- 3 essays, 2 closed, one open prompt
• 2 different exams to take: AP Lit Exam and AP Language and Composition Exam (non fiction): check if you can get credit for both
• http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/sub_englit.html
• more on how to prepare for exam: http://www.ehow.com/how_6029866_prepare-ap-english-literature-exam.html
• cross word puzzle to practice some literary terms: http://www.armoredpenguin.com/crossword/Data/best/vocabulary/ap.english.01.html

Closed Readings

• Read (the promt)
• Analyze (your essay)
• Plan (a response)
• Write (your essay)
• Analyze (its effectiveness)
• Revise (content, structure, and usage)

Given a passage to read and then write about.

How does author use technique, and what does it mean?

• meaning= context+significance 
• Don't forget the hidden "So what?" question

The Open Prompt

2 main categories of questions:

• critical theory questions- make a statement about the function of a literary element and show how this is true of some pieces you've already read.
• content questions- theme focused, have to show how this theme is developed in a piece you've already read.

Have to recall previously read literature to support responses.

• may ask for only pieces in a certain time period, or a certain type of literature (poems, novels, etc.)
• So be efficient: have a poem from one time period, and a novel from another to cover both possibilities.

A video I found with a song about AP English with allusions to the bible and novels and other things about the class. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_58HDK2meZg

Connections: There was a complete connection with this class and my psychology class when we learned about the psychoanalytical criticism. We just finished learning about Jung and Freud in that class.

Notes Sept 27- Oct 1

Writing Style and Syntax


Nuts and Bolts of College Writing packets

• Clarity- being clear in thoughts and words
• to achieve clarity use...
• short active verbs- to convey action
• subjects that match up with their actors- to bring main action into subject-verb part of the sentence
• sustained flow of sentence from one point of view- keep story unfolding in a way that is easy for the reader to follow.
• concision- to keep reader focused on what's important
• fewer labels and more clause based on active verbs and clear actors
• instead of many complicated words- just use a few strong words to keep it clear and concise.
• build grammatical units around logical units- put actions into verbs and actors into subjects
• ex: "society is witnessing the steady progression of women towards equality..." -->"society is witnessing women's steady progression towards equality."
• Clause v. Phrase
• 2 parts of a clause: 
• noun acting as a subject
• finite, conjugated verb attached to that subject
• limited sense of time--> finite conjugated verb--> clause
• ex: "Girl walks"- finite conjugated verb- clause                                  
• "Girl walking"- no finite conjugated verb- phrase
• active voice- subject of verb performs action
• passive voice- subject receives actions
• nominalization- typical problem of student's writing
• action expressed as noun 
• allow actions to be separated from their actors
• long, shapeless strings of words
• http://www.wheaton.edu/learnres/writectr/Resources/clarity.htm
• Plain Style
• Strive to be...
• sensibly simple
• to develop a baseline style of short words
• use active verbs, simple sentence that convey clear actions or identities
• trying to teach reader something- you want to be understood
• teachers want to read in papers that you didn't just learn about the lesson- you thought about it.
• plainness better than complexity
• avoid first person, jokes, or playfulness
• scared to write plain-> don't want to expose themselves or sound dumb
• http://www.editorialservice.com/11ways.html
• Concision
• key to concision:
• build around strong verbs
• choose active voice over passive
• be suspicious of adverbs
• toss out empty words and phrases
• http://www.colorado.edu/pwr/writingtips/27.html
• Rhetoric- art or science of persuasion by means of stylistic and structural techniques
• http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/625/1
• encourages us to think of writing as a series of strategic choices
• encourages thinking about one's audience
• Academic writing- use more formal diction
• Jargon, Official Style diction
• police wouldn't say car, robber, gun, or saw but rather vehicle, alleged perpetrator, firearm, strike, and observed.
• Parallelism- any structure that brings together parallel elements
• Trouble: nested lists
• Fixes: 
• rearrange list to emphasize different elements and allow some pauses
• inversion
• focus attention to end of sentence
• Repetition- bring attention to an idea, image, or relationship to force reader to notice it.
• Very well know example: Martin Luther King Jr's "I have a dream" speech
• Don't change tense in term paper!
• Rule of Three- lists come across more powerfully when they contain three items
• third term larger in force than first two

Artful Sentences: Syntax as Style

• How does author use technique to create affect and what does it mean?
• Walden by Henry David Thoreau
• People should live simple lives
• parallelism to show signifigance
• "...and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I can to die, discover that I had not lived."
• "...like ants..." negative connotation of society
• Repetition- "Simplicity, simplicity, simplicity!"
• length of sentence= simplicity
• "Eva Is Inside Her Cat" by Gabriel Gracia Marquez
• Bearing burden of upper class- want to be ordinary not upper class
• - ing verbs-->make seem more rushed and desperate
• some short sentence- attention to statement
• "But it was necessary, urgent, to put a stop..." -> asyndeton- rushed
• desperate and forced
• "The Private History of a Campaign That Failed" by Mark Twain
• Dunlap tries to change his name- make himself more upper class- sentences get longer as it goes on.
• "Rocking-Horse Winner" by D.H. Lawrence
• many periods used combined with alternation of long and short sentences
• compound sentences at beginning creates dramatic irony
• inverted syntax
• "Although they lived in style, they felt always an anxiety in the house."
• always anxiety in house- a part of the house
• "The mother had a small income, and the father had a small income..."
• separates mother and father- 2 different incomes but both small
• "there must be more money, there must be more money."
• comma creates rhythm
• repetition
• http://www.cummingsstudyguides.net/Guides5/RockingHorse.html
• "Shooting and Elephant" by George Orwell
• imperialist crippling people
• against it
• "devilish roar of glee that went up from the crowd." - negative tone
• "but he was not dead," "but his breathing did not weaken," "but still he did not die,"   -repetition and words at end of sentence for emphasis

Connections

    When we discussed active and passive voice, that really stuck out to me since I remember last year my English teacher told me that was something I had to work on. I also focused on all the ideas about clarity, concision, and rhetoric as I edited my college application essays, and it was really helpful to know what to focus on. 

Notes Sept 20-24

Figurative Language
Figures of speech examples and other definitions: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/figures-of-speech-examples.html


Chapter 5: Figurative Language- Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Apostrophe, Metonymy

• Figure of Speech- any way of saying something other than the ordinary way 
• adds extra dimensions
• can say what we want more vividly and forcefully
• saying one thing while meaning another
• http://grammar.about.com/od/rhetoricstyle/a/20figures.htm
• Figurative Language-uses figures of speech
• not taken literally
• simile and metaphor
• 4 forms
1. both literal and figurative terms are named 
2. literal term named and figurative term is implied
3. literal term implied and figurative term named
4. both literal and figurative terms are implied
• Personification- gives animals, objects or concepts human-like attributes
• http://library.thinkquest.org/J0112392/personification.html
• Apostrophe- addressing someone absent or dead or something nonhuman as if the person were present and alive and could reply
• Synecdoche and Metonymy- 
• both substitute detail/quality of experience for experience itself
• common examples in language:
• red head (red haired person)
• tongues (languages)
• boiling kettle (water in kettle)
• metonymy v. synecdoche http://www.buzzle.com/articles/metonymy-vs-synecdoche.html
• "Imaginative pleasure," bring additional imagery, add emotional intensity, brief way of saying something

Chapter 6: Figurative Language- Symbol and Allegory

• Symbol- something that means more than it is.
• wary in degree of identification and definition given to them by their authors.
• 
• http://www.offthemark.com/search-results/key/symbol/ 
• Allegory- narrative or description that has a second meaning beneath the surface

Chapter 7: Figurative Language- paradox, overstatement, understatement, irony

• Paradox- an apparent contradiction that is nevertheless somehow true 
• a situation or statement
• 
• Overstatement (or hyperbole)- exaggeration of truth
• adding emphasis to what you mean
• example: "i'll die if I don't pass this class."
• humorous, grave, restrained, convincing or unconvincing
• Understatement- say less than one means 
• example: "this looks like a nice shack."
• said with less force than situation should requires
• Irony- has meanings that extend beyond it's use.
• Verbal Irony- saying opposite of what one means 
• *not sarcasm or satire- imply ridicule
• sarcasm- bitter speech intended to wound a person's feelings
• satire- more formal, written literature
• higher motive-ridicule of human folly or vice
• to bring reform or keep people from falling into similar folly
• **doesn't have to use sarcastic intent
• example: "Here's some bad news for you; you got all A's and B's." (ironic but not sarcastic)
• http://www.k-state.edu/english/baker/english320/cc-verbal_irony.htm

The Rhetorical Situation- the context of communication

• Evaluate elements of communication to figure out how to respond
• Rhetoric- art of communication
• Elements- 
• Subject: what is your topic? main ideas?
• Purpose: what you want to get out of this.
• Main purposes-
• Entertain- rousing emotion/imagination
• Reflect- reflecting "us" (journals, blogs, etc)
• Inform- convey facts (dictionary, encyclopedia, etc)
• Persuade- change audience's ideas (editorials, political, speeches, etc)
• Audience: who are you writing to? (age, education level, expectations)
• Speaker(Persona): what kind of person do you want to seem like? (yourself/fictional personality, attitude) what would connect you to audience?
• Think ahead to avoid bad communication.

Argument- persuasive communication

• http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/618/01/
• Logical Argument (logos)
• Appeals to Ethnics (ethos)
• Appeals to Emotions (pathos)
• Parts: 
• conclusion and premise
• thesis
• claim- an assertion- idea not a simple fact. Series of claims to support thesis.
• warrant- explanation of reasoning- warrants tie evidence to claims.                                             *don't leave reasoning in head!
• evidence- facts that show that your claims are reasonable.
• necessary- "needed"- necessary elements of an argument or things that can't be ignored. Individual ideas.
• sufficient- "enough"- when condition of sufficiency is met, you have done enough to make your case.
• many types of arguments (proposal, of evolution, of fact)
• (we will mostly write cause and effect arguments)
• Steps:
• Thesis
1. consider rhetorical situations- audience, expectations
2. make a plan- what's problem, analysis, side I've chosen
• claim, evidence, warrants, evidence, warrants...
• no gaps in chain of dominoes- so last domino (thesis) tips.